Advancements and challenges in microalgal protein production: A sustainable alternative to conventional protein sources

Table 1 Comparison of microalgal cultivation methods for protein production

Cultivation method	Energy source	Carbon source	Applications	Advantages	Challenges	Suitability for large-scale production	References
Phototrophic	Light	CO₂	• Biofuels • Food • Bioremediation	• Sustainable • Scalable, • Low-cost • Mitigates CO₂ emissions	• Light dependency • Low cell density • Contamination risks • High evaporation rates	High	[19, 20]
Heterotrophic	Organic compounds	Organic compounds	• Biofuels • Bioplastics • Nutraceuticals	• High biomass productivity • Controlled growth • Flexible substrate use	• Expensive substrates • Contamination risks	Moderate	[21, 22]
Mixotrophic	Light & organics	CO₂ & organic compounds	• Biofuels • High-value products	• Versatility • Enhanced biomass and metabolite production • CO₂ recycling	• Cost of organics • Metabolic complexity	Low	[23, 24]
Photoheterotrophic	Light	Organic compounds	• Specialty metabolites • Biopharmaceuticals	• Enhanced light- metabolite production	• High costs • Limited scalability	Low	[22, 25]

ISSN: 1475-2859